定语是名词的从属成分,主要表示逻辑意义中的性质、形状、颜色、领属等意义,概括为限定关系。名词加定语以后,所表示的事物概念的外延缩小,内涵增大。下文将从三个方面对英汉语中的定语作一个简要的比较。
一. 作定语的成分
形容词是任何语言里典型的作定语成分,此外还可以用名词等其他词类、词组和从句等。
汉语里形容词、名词、动词、代词、数量词以及其他词组都可以作定语。英语中作定语的成分是形容词、名词、动词(通常被当作名词化的动词,如running water)和从句。汉语没有形态变化,少用关联词,没有定语从句,名词前的定语也不宜太长。而英语的定语使用多于汉语,长度也比汉语长。因此,英语中的长单词定语或定语从句在翻译成汉语时,往往要转换成汉语的谓语或其他成分。例如:
Keith: A little yellow, tagged, lame, unshaven beggar.
基思:一个讨饭的,身材矮小,面色苍黄,衣衫褴褛,瘸腿,满脸胡子。
二.定语和中心语的语义关系
英汉语中定语和中心语在语义上的联系是基本对应的。比较复杂的是名词作定语的情况,名词与中心语的语义关系多种多样,难以尽述,这里仅举出几种类型为例。
主谓关系: car clash 汽车相撞
动宾关系: data collection 资料收集
同位关系: the criminal Henry 罪犯亨利
……
三.定语和中心语形式上的联系
1. 语序
定语与中心语的语序,以及复杂定语内部的词序问题,是英汉语的主要区别之一。
现代汉语中定语一般都放在被修饰的中心词前面。老一辈语言学家,如王力、黎锦熙、陈望道、史存直等人认为汉语的定语是可以后置或前行的,只有张志公认为,修饰语在前,被修饰语在后,不能颠倒,一颠倒就成了别的关系了。张静主编的《现代汉语》认为,定语的正常位置是在中心语之前,为了表达的需要,有时也可以移到中心语之后,或者移到动词谓语之前。张先生的所谓定语移到动词谓语之前,就是指“墙壁上,红的、绿的、黄的,贴满了标语。” 对于这里的“红的、绿的、黄的”是不是定语有争议,但我们至少可以说汉语中定语放在中心词前面(即“红的、绿的、黄的标语”)是“无标记”(unmarked)的词序,而其它前行或后置的情形则是由篇章等因素决定的“有标记”(marked)形式
英语中定语主要有前置、后置两种情况。
1).定语前置
英语中单个过去分词、单个现在分词、“状语+过去(现在)分词”、形容词作定语时一般(80%以上)前置。“数词+量词+of”整个结构、名词所有格、单个名词(与中心词非归属关系)、名词性词组、合成定语、代词作定语时都固定(100%)前置。这与汉语基本相同。如:
A stone building 一座石头砌的大厦
Faded flowers 萎谢的花
Boiling water 滚开的水
John’s house 约翰的房子
2).定语后置
不定式短语、过去分词短语、现在分词短语、形容词短语、介词短语和从句作定语时都固定后置,修饰不定代词的定语后置比重100%。副词、动词或名词转化来的词尾带 “-able”, “-ible”的形容词、少数形容词(total, due, general, enough等)、单个分词(该分词具有较强的动词意义)、具有表语力量的形容词(present, alive等)作定语时,后置的比重依次从大到小,据粗略的抽样统计约从90%到40%。这些定语译成汉语时一般都要前置。例如:
(1).短语作定语都后置。
He had made a thorough study of all the dialects spoken in Scotland.
他对苏格兰所有的方言都做了透彻的研究。
The woman holding a baby in her arms is waiting to see the doctor.
那个手里抱着婴儿的妇女正等着医生看病。
It was a bolt from the blue.这真是个晴天霹雳。
(2).修饰some, any, no, every等构成的不定代词的定语都后置。如:
There is nothing unexpected about it. 这一切都在意料之中。
No one else came to the party. 没有别的人参加那次舞会。
Let’s do something exciting. 让我们做一些激动人心的事。
(3).副词作定语。如:
Your friends here are busy studying.你在这里的朋友都忙着学习。
All the buildings around were built in 1958.
附近的全部房子都是1958年盖的。
They live in the room above.他们住在楼上的房间里。
(4).动词、名词转化来的以-able, -ible结尾的形容词作定语。如:
This is the only reference book available here on the subject.
这是这里唯一能找到的有关这题目的参考书。
He is the only person reliable. 他是唯一可靠的人。
This is the earliest edition obtainable.这是现在能找到的最早的版本。
(注:这种中心词之前大都有形容词最高级,或之类的词修饰。同时,这种形容词放在中心词之前与放在中心词之后,在意义上显然有所不同。前置时形容词与名词的关系紧密;后置时,形容词与名词关系较不紧密,并且具有从句的性质,有时可以用从句来代替。
All the available accommodation was put at our disposal.
All the accommodation that was available was put at our disposal.
有些以-able, -ible结尾的形容词没有被动意义,自然也就无法置于中心词之后。如,a sensible suggestion(合理建议), an unreasonable person(不可理喻的人) 等。
(5).起强调用的单个分词
the departments concerned 有关部门
the people involved 被牵涉到的人员
(6).具有表语力量的形容词及外来词。
He was the only person awake at the moment.他是那时唯一醒着的人。
“I am the happiest man alive.” He thought.“我是世上最快活的人了。”
3). 英语中两个或两个以上的单词作定语放在中心词前共同修饰一个名词时,其基本语序是由小范围到大范围,由次要意义到重要意义,由程度弱到程度强,由一般到专有。意思越具体,物质性越强,就越靠近名词,而汉语与此正好相反。如:
the advanced foreign experience 外国的先进经验
the ancient Chinese writer 中国古代作家
一般说来,英语形容词词序的排列顺序为:
(限定词 大小、长短、高低 形状 年龄、新旧 颜色 国籍、地区、出处)+名词 如:a small triangle green Danish stamp
而汉语中定语的顺序大致如下顺序排列:
(时间、地点定语 所有格定语 指示性形容词或数词作定语 限制性定语 描写性定语 表示性质或类属的定语)+名词
如:这是香港去年的两种新产品。这是他们去年在这里做的两个实验报告。
2.形态和虚词
汉语里定语和中心语之间常常要用结构助词“的”,因此“的”常常被看作定语的标志。例如,漂亮的衣服(形容词作定语);爸爸买的衣服(主谓短语作定语);毛料衣服(名词作定语),等等。值得注意的是“的”字省略受限的情况,例如“窄书”、“香饭”等尽管在语义上构成修饰语和中心语的关系,在形式上却不能没有“的”字,而相应的“窄路”、“香花”又都成立。同样,在领属结构中,省去了“的”字的“我爸爸”成立,但“我书”就不行。认知语言学近年来在解释此类现象上取得了较大进展,例如,“疏密原则”认为,“我”和“爸爸”之间的关系更亲密,因此可以省掉“的”。
英语中和“的”字相对的形态标记有“’s”和“of”,两者之间可以互相转化,例如:
my brother’s book = the book of my brother
英语的定语和中心语有时借助形态变化或连接手段也可以互相转化,例如:
There is no importance in what he said.
There is nothing important in what he said.
英汉语被动句受损语义比较
下面的被动句语料取自Brown语料库,分别查找以are, is ,was, were和原型为be动词的被动句,从查找结果中分别摘取最后10句,摘列如下,句子前符号表示[+受损]、[-受损]或[+受损,-受损]:(由于时间关系,语料总数只抽取了50句,但基本倾向也可以略见一斑。)
be动词为are的被动句
+ - 1. From these a selection of designs are included which show the use of trammes of other institutes which are financed wholly or in part by them.
+ - 2. These expressions are associated with many experiences.
+ - 3. It remains true that many phenomena are charged with a magic quality of lion
+ - 4. acres or when million acres are sprayed with dieldrin.
+ - 5. Modern turbines are provided with anticipatory gear old buildings
+ - 6. and the side streets are studded with craftsmen's workshop
+ - 7. and the Turk whose names are associated with its construction,
+ 8. the E0Danes are annoyed with British farmers for fighting or interstices,
+ - 9. of which are filled with a caution, the remaining 72 J
+ 10. You are dissatisfied with your present.
be动词为is的被动句
+ - 11. …and the speech is picked up by a receiving aerial…of the Crimean campaign. + - 12. It is based upon vast research into unpublished…
+ - 13. …the stress is obtained.
+ - 14. Using this value of *1E*;*there, and the way the matter is broached varies.
+ - 15. Theme is discussed very fully, with frequent reference of Relativity
+ - 16. on which the theory is based was formulated by Poincareater a parish…
- 17. Name is the WORD OF GOD, Who is crowned with glory and honour.
+ - 18. A large proportion of their business is conducted weekly at premises.
+ - 19. A brand new baby is washed, weighed and dressed.
+ - 20. Then when the discrimination is improved when the number of permitted…
be动词为was的被动句
+ 21. My father was disappointed with me.
+ - 22. …and the dark Earth was fringed with the *"Wedding ring effect**".
+ - 23. …instead another question was raised with them.
+ - 24. Did they have Jehovr and, as a sailor, I was filled with admiration for the seamanlike way ercised his active mind.
+ - 25. I was filled with questions, he says,
+ - 26. …a classical legend was associated with Hades.
+ - 27. According to Hesiod, Test Case was noted working well when accompanied by rather investigation which,
- 28. Dora May was gratified.
+ 29. But it was the day he was killed.
+ 30. He was injured.
Be动词为were的被动句:
+ - 31. Thus if voltmeters of this type were used with the…
+ - 32. …it my fingers that were coated with my own blood or slime from…
+ - 33. I could see these windows were barricaded with boards.
+ - 34. Hales and Legge, whose names were linked with the imposition of the…
+ - 35. Extensive areas in Delamere were planted with oak early in the…
+ - 36. …for their bloodshot eyes were glazed with exhaustion and the blank…
+ - 37. Less committed critics, however, were faced with two unpleasant alter ginal Sakais,
- 38. and his walls were adorned with a varied collection of Sak and go by boat.
+ 39. They were immured with us in that spotless house.
+ 40. Zambia Congress leaders were charged with forming a murderous fore…
be动词为原形be或完成体been的被动句:
+ - 41.…enter our active forces, some to be armed with Polaris missiles.
- 42. No one is likely to be satisfied with the statement until phone spat back him.
+ - 43. A phonemic system can be stated without reference J34 1170 to moranage a part
+ - 44. when it cannot be handled without relation to the whole.
+ - 45. That such expansion can be obtained without a raise in tax.
+ - 46. She has rarely been photographed with him.
+ - 47. has often been compared with Green's.
+ 48….on the case seem to have been afflicted with a similar myopia as far…
+ - 49. Greatest benefits have been associated with feeding low-moisture.
+ 50. The whole project had been abandoned.
统计结果:
标记为[+ - 受损]即无所谓受损与否的句子有37个,占总数的74%;标记为[+受损]的句子有9个,占总数的18%,标记为[- 受损]的句子有4个,占总数的8%。[+受损,-受损]的句子出现频率相当高,表明英语中被动句在“受损”这一语义特征上是有倾向性的,即无所谓受损或不受损。
分析:
1. 英语被动句在“受损”语义上表现出的中性是与被动句在英语中的广泛使用密不可分的。英语常用被动句,主要有以下几方面的原因:
A. 当主动句的施事(agent)不需要或不可能指明时,英语常采用被动句。例如,施事在某些情况下未知而难以言明。(“The murderer was caught yesterday, and it is said that he will be hanged.凶手已于昨天被捕,据说将会被绞死。”)
B. 英语重形和,注重句法结构和表达形式。当主动式不便于表达时,出于句法的要求,往往采用被动式。比如,为了使句子平衡,保持末端中心(end focus),常常使用被动句。
I was astounded that he was prepared to give me a job.
他准备给我一份工作,这使我大吃一惊。
C. 从修辞来看,使用被动句可以使表达方式灵活多变,避免句型单调。比如,使用被动式可以减少以填补词“it”、“there”引导的句式,使句子干脆有力。
There are many ways to vary the basic English sentence pattern of subject-verb-object.
由许多方法可以变换英语“主—动—宾”基本句型。
The basic English sentence pattern of subject-verb-object can be varied in many ways.
英语“主—动—宾”基本句型可以用许多方法加以变换。
2. 英语中主动与被动更见于文体上的区别,而不是语义上的不同。英语中被动句的使用是正式(formality)文体的一个重要特点,如科技、新闻、公文及论述文体等。这些文体的共同特征是要求客观、公正、冷静,力戒作者的主观臆断。(但近年来已有很多语言学家对被动语态在英语中的过分使用提出了批评。)
而汉语中的被动式具有受损的语义特征,是和“被字句”的历史渊源有深刻关系的。古代汉语的被动结构用“为”字或“为…所”结构来表示,到了近代,汉语才有了“被字句”。“被”字和“把”等介词一样,是由动词演变而来的,而它最初作为动词,意义是“遭受”,例如《后汉书/贾复传》中的“身被十二创”。因此,虽然现代汉语受英文的影响,被字句的使用范围有所扩大,受损的语义成分在不少被字句中仍然存在。
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